Learning how to balance service work among other commitments, duties, obligations, and responsibilities reflects personal and professional maturity.

Folks:

The posting below looks at the importance of service work in our academic lives.  It is by Bradley J. Cardinal* and first appeared on April 30, 2013 in the Journal of Physical Education,Recreation & Dance (Vol. 84 No. 5 May/June 2013) published by Taylor & Francis Group, 325 Chestnut Street, Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106 Tel: 215.606.4334, www.tandfonline.com. Reprinted with permission.

Regards,

Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: Can Faculty Misinterpretation and Misuse of Student Rating Results Lead to the “Dumbing Down” of College Education?

Imagine a job applicant asking the question, “If I come here, what is the least amount of service work I have to do to get by?” Or how would you feel if you were preparing to depart for a professional conference and a colleague said to you in passing: “You still go there? Why?” Or you are working with someone who volunteers to chair a committee but does nothing to advance the work of the group and is non-communicative and non-responsive when others attempt to communicate with her or him. Sadly, these are not make-believe scenarios. They are real-life experiences that I have witnessed during my own career. From talking with others, I suspect they are relatable and not necessarily the most egregious.

Is there a prevailing attitude of avoidance, disengagement, and entitlement brewing in our disciplines and professions? Are we socializing people—our students, our colleagues—to dismiss or neglect the service needs of our communities, institutions, and professional societies?

In this editorial, I draw attention to what I view as a diminishing “service” mindset and a growing “serve-us” mindset among people in our fields of study.Table 1 articulates the key differences between these typologies. In a nutshell, those with a “service” mindset voluntarily give of themselves for the betterment of others, whereas those with a “serve-us” mindset partake in activities reluctantly or participate in only those activities that result in a direct personal benefit to them (e.g., power, privilege, title).

Service and Society

Civic engagement, civility, and the interconnectivity among people in the United States hit a record low at the close of the 20th century, according to Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Putnam, 2000).

Eleven years after the publication of Putnam’s book, volunteerism rates in the United States were 26.8% (Corporation for National and Community Service, 2012). While this represents the highest rate of volunteerism seen in five years, it is still lower than the rates observed for all the years prior to 2006. Whether or not the 26.8% figure represents a bottoming out or reversal of the downward trend in volunteerism remains to be seen. Regardless, we are currently living with the consequences of a generation raised in an era of diminished volunteerism.

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Table 1. Focus of a “Service” vs. “Serve-us” Mindset (Note: I have changed the format slightly to allow for e-mail posting - RR)

Focus              “Service”

Advice
                    We are all stewards of
                    something larger than ourselves.
                    Seek out authentic opportunities
                    to better humanity by contributing
                    to your community, institution,
                    profession, etc.

Approach 

                   Communal, cooperative, interdependent

Commitment          

                    Active, engaged, involved,
                    participates, volunteers

Contribution        

                    Puts into

Orientation         

                   Community, group, organization, others, selfless

Outcome/expectancy  

                    Doesn’t care who gets credit,
                    intrinsic, mutuality, satisfaction, win–win

Perspective        

                    Authentic, give, offer

Questions           

                   What can I do to help?

--------------------

Focus              “Serve-Us"

Advice              

                    Service doesn’t really
                    count for anything. Protect yourself
                    and your time above all else. Find out what
                    is the least amount of service required
                    of you and stick with that.

Approach            

                   Autonomous, competitive, individualistic

Commitment          

                     Avoids, disassociates, disingenuous, passive,
                     removed, waits to be asked

Contribution        

                     Takes from

Orientation        

                     Ego, me, selfish

Outcome/expectancy  Personal gain, contempt, extrinsic,
                    wants personal credit, win–lose

Perspective         

                    Receive, strategic, take

Questions           

                    What is in it for me?

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This disengagement seems to extend to our professional work as well, in which service duties are often shirked and even basic things such as affiliation through membership remain low. For example, Buschner (2007) estimated that only 8% of physical education teachers employed in the United States are members of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education. Of those who do belong to professional societies, many are reluctant to volunteer their time or expertise to committee work, or to run for and serve in either elected offices or appointed positions (Asbell, 2007; Dowd, 2007).

Service Sustains

We are not socializing people to engage in or value service (Napper-Owen, 2012), and by not doing so, we are doing our charges and pledges a disservice, harming our fields of study, and depriving the communities, institutions, and organizations that we live in, work for, and affiliate with of our time and expertise. The scenarios highlighted in the opening paragraph are indicative of this. Service work is often described as a colossal waste of time, an unrewarded chore, and something to protect oneself from—especially early on in one’s career (GMP, 2010). Even if well intentioned on some level, encouraging this perspective or suggesting that others take this approach to life and work does more harm than good. If service work is desirable or eventually expected, necessary, and/ or required of a person after a probationary period of time, then it only makes sense to socialize people to engage in service work early in their careers. Learning how to balance service work among other commitments, duties, obligations, and responsibilities reflects personal and professional maturity.

Additionally, authentic service work has a multitude of psychological and sociological benefits (e.g., affiliation, belonging, interpersonal skill enhancement, knowledge acquisition, loyalty, networking, outreach, understanding, visibility). It is also associated with living a longer, healthier, and more satisfying life (Okun, August, Rook, & Newsom, 2010). However, there is an interesting catch to this. The service rendered must be for other-oriented reasons (“service”) rather than personal gain reasons (“serve-us”) for the benefits to hold true (Konrath, Fuhrel-Forbis, Lou, & Brown, 2012).

It’s Not All Fun and Games

Now, before being accused of glorifying service work to the detriment of one’s own personal life or professional career, let me also be clear that service work can at times be daunting, frustrating, and time consuming. For this reason it is important to make certain that the service assignments accepted or pursued are authentic, meaningful, and personally relevant. As the muse Kira, played by Olivia Newton-John in the movie Xanadu, said, “It must be frustrating to waste your talents on things that don’t really matter to you” (Danus, Rubel, & Greenwald, 1980).

Of course, there are core functions that go along with any service assignment, and sometimes these are not glamorous— perhaps akin to cleaning your house. Indeed, such tasks may go unnoticed when done well, but if not done or done poorly, people will notice. Therefore, it is important to be attentive, caring, and responsive to the core functions of any service assignment assumed. Doing so reflects one’s dependability, humility, and level of responsibility. And people notice this, too. If you cannot give something the effort that it deserves, then it is better to pass on the assignment in the first place. Attempting to do something that your heart is not in or that you truly do not have time for creates more work for others and deprives other people of opportunities, and it can tarnish your reputation. Knowing when and how to say “no” is also a sign of personal and professional maturity. If you are interested, but the timing is not right, let people know that, too.

Our Service Realities Vary

The context of each of our lives is different.The needs of our communities, work environments, and the professional societies we belong to are unique.The expectations placed upon us and others vary as well. For example, women and minorities are often over-burdened with service duties while other groups do comparatively little, or when they do serve, they take on the larger and more visible roles (Massé & Hogan, 2010). It would be easy to dismiss this as a simple timing issue; however, the unique interplay among gender, ethnicity, race, and sexual orientation in relation to our service realities are difficult to disentangle.This is something of which to be mindful and attentive.

Cynicism sometimes becomes associated with service work, too. Those who serve must not be doing something else. Or, those who serve do it to compensate for other areas of weakness or because it is an accessible way to contribute. Of course, such assumptions are biased and fraught with prejudice. Conversely, some question the point of serving if their time and efforts are in vain or the results futile. For example, sometimes committee accomplishments go nowhere or are superseded by administrative decisions. When this happens, it counteracts the finding of meaning in service, which can result in mistrust and disengagement.

One result of our growing and, at times, fragmented fields of study is that there are infinite demands and needs for our services. A biomechanist may judge a science fair, a dance educator may help write state dance standards, a physical educator may testify to state legislators, a sport psychologist may consult with a team, and so on. There are more journals, requiring more editorial services; and more professional organizations needing to fill their boards and committees with devoted and dedicated professionals. Moreover, greater expectations, accountability, and documentation are required in the work we do.That said, service work remains important to the long-term success of any community, institution, or professional society.

Take-Home Message

Like mortar between bricks, service is paramount to stabilizing and sustaining our structures. It is also the intersecting point between all the bricks. The bricks sit in isolation, separated from one another by the mortar. The bricks need the mortar, and the mortar needs the bricks.They are interdependent; the presence of one without the other results in structural instability and weakness.

People should be encouraged to assume service assignments, rather than discouraged from doing so. Approaching life with a service-oriented spirit and participating in authentic service-oriented activities is reflective of a life well lived. As a reminder of this, one of Coach John Wooden’s favorite maxims was, “Be more concerned with what you can do for others than what others can do for you. You’ll be surprised at the results” (Wooden & Jamison, 1997, p. 200).

References

Asbell, A. C. (2007, Fall). Volunteering – What it means – Where has it gone? Oregon Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance Journal, 12–13.

Buschner, C. (2007). Peak professionalism. California Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance Journal, 70(1), 13–14, 24.

Corporation for National and Community Service. (2012, December). Volunteering and civic life in America 2012: Key findings on the volunteer participation and civic health of the nation. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http:// www.volunteeringinamerica.gov/ assets/resources/FactSheetFinal.pdf.

Danus, R. C., Rubel, M. R. (Writers), & Greenwald, R. (Director). (1980). Xanadu [Motion picture]. United States: Universal Studios.

Dowd, K. J. (2007). Involved in your profession and making a difference. California Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance Journal, 70(1), 11–12.

GMP. (2010, June 18). Serves you right. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from http://www.insidehighered. com/advice/jungle/jungle1.

Konrath, S., Fuhrel-Forbis, A., Lou, A., & Brown, S. (2012). Motives for volunteering are associated with mortality risk in older adults. Health Psychology, 31, 87–96.

Massé, M. A., & Hogan, K. J. (Eds.). (2010). Over ten million served: Gendered service in language and, literature workplaces. Albany, NY: State University of NewYork Press.

Napper-Owen, G. (2012). Raising the next generation. Quest, 64, 131–140.

Okun, M. A., August, K. J., Rook, K. S., & Newsom, J.T. (2010). Does volunteering moderate the relation between functional limitations and mortality? Social Science and Medi- cine, 71, 1662–1668.

Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone:
The collapse and revival of Ameri- can community. NewYork: Simon & Schuster.

Wooden, J. R., & Jamison, S. (1997).
Wooden: A lifetime of observa- tions and reflections on and off the court. Lincolnwood, IL: Contempo- rary Books.

Bradley        J.Cardinal(brad. cardinal@oregonstate.edu) is a professor in the College of Public Health and Human Sciences, School of Biological and Population Health Sciences, Program in Exercise and Sport Science, at Oregon State University in Corvallis, OR.

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* Bradley J. Cardinal, Ph.D. Professor, Social Psychology of Physical Activity Co-Director, Sport and Exercise Psychology Lab Program in Exercise and Sport Science School of Biological and Population Health Sciences College of Public Health and Human Sciences
Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-3303

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Folks:

The posting below looks at ways to improve students' quantitative reasoning skills.  It is by Mary Wright* and Joe Howard*, and is adapted from a Center for Research on Learning and Teaching, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, blog post (http://feeds.feedburner.com/CRLT_blog), April 5, 2013. © 2012 The Regents of the University of Michigan. Reprinted with permission.

Regards,

Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: Service vs. Serve-Us: What Will Your Legacy Be?

Whether mathematically inclined or not, today’s college graduates will be expected to “navigate a sea of numbers on a daily basis” in their careers and daily lives (Grawe, 2012, p. 30). A majority of employers interviewed in a recent study noted that they want universities to enhance their quantitative reasoning (QR) skills, or students' ability to work with numbers and understand statistics (Hart Research Associates, 2009). Key competencies embedded in QR include (Dwyer, Gallagher, Levin & Morely, 2003; Rhodes, 2009; Wolfe, 1993):

· The ability to make sense of information displayed in a number of formats (graphs, tables, diagrams, equations) and to convert information from one
  format to another.

· Competency in mathematical calculation.

· The use of evidence in drawing conclusions about numerical data and the ability to assess the limitations of the evidence.

· The ability to describe and evaluate assumptions for estimation, data analysis, and modeling.

Many schools and colleges have some curricular QR requirement to help students build these skills. What teaching strategies are working best in such courses? In 2009, the Center for Research on Learning and Teaching, at the University of Michigan (U-M), collaborated with the College of the Literature, Science, and Arts to assess its QR requirement. The assessment findings were based on a study of nearly 2,000 students (Wright & Barber, 2009). After the 2009 assessment, CRLT staff conducted follow-up discussions with U-M instructors about the findings and their own teaching approaches.

These discussions indicate that many faculty are maximizing student learning by using strategies that research has proven effective for strengthening students' QR skills. Here are some examples:

· Use active note-taking to promote problem-solving skills : Brenda Gunderson, in U-M's Department of Statistics, uses a customized notepack with equations, definitions, and “Try It!” problems. Therefore, students do not need to spend time writing down equations or definitions, and Dr. Gunderson can instead engage students in problem-solving throughout the lecture. In addition, Gunderson uses a personal response system (iClickers) to scaffold difficult questions with peer discussion. Doing so, she notes, “mandates a sense of engagement” among her more than 1700 students.

· Provide multiple assessment opportunities with feedback : Research tells us that multiple opportunities for student assessment – when paired with instructor feedback – foster a rich learning environment. In the Communication Studies course, "Evaluating Information," Michael Traugott and Nick Valentino have assigned weekly quizzes, along with multiple papers and exams scattered throughout the semester. Assignments occurring later in the term are weighted more heavily, allowing students the opportunity to make mistakes as they grow in confidence and capability. Professor Ed Rothman, in "Statistical Principles for Problem Solving: A Systems Approach," assigns 14 memos in which students must apply a statistical concept to a real-life situation. Some memo assignments require the student to orally defend their reasoning to Rothman, allowing the student the opportunity to receive feedback and suggestions for improving future memos.

· Capitalize on collaborative learning opportunities : Collaborative learning is one key educational practice that has been shown to increase student engagement and retention (Rhodes, 2010; Treisman, 1992) . In U-M's Calculus I, nearly all of the instruction is orientated to group problem-solving. Student gains on the Calculus Concept Inventory for U-M are significantly higher compared to calculus courses at 25 other colleges and universities, suggesting the approach is particularly effective ( Calculus Concept Inventory, 2009) .

· Use real-world problems: Despite strong research findings that this is an effective technique for teaching QR, the 2009 U-M assessment found that many LSA students did not perceive that their instructors were using (or effectively using) "real-world problem solving" in their courses. However, there are several examples of successful incorporation of such practices. For instance, Brian Arbic, a U-M professor in Earth and Environmental Sciences, incorporates problems based on issues studied by oceanographers into his “Introductory Oceanography” course. Students are encouraged to bring laptops to class, and they work in teams on questions, such as how long it would have taken for the 2004 tsunami to travel from its source in Indonesia to given points on the Indian and African coasts.

The scholarship on student learning provides many additional examples of faculty teaching QR through real-world problems, from multiple disciplinary perspectives:

* Schield (2008) developed and uses a 10-element model to help students dissect current news stories which contain statistical information in a course titled “Quantitative Reasoning and Statistical Literacy.”
    
* Atkinson and colleagues (2006) use real-world data in their introductory sociology course at North Carolina State University. Students analyze recent population studies to unearth sociological “knowns” such as income disparity and its relationship to education, gender, and race.
    
* In his history course at Miami University, Gene Metcalf has students research and mock-up a full scale floor plan of a typical Puritan house (using masking tape on the floor). In doing so, students come to learn that the average six-person family lived in a space of about 300 square feet, prompting discussions about the cultural implications of these factors. According to Metcalf, the exercise “gave them a better feel for life in a Puritan community and the relationship between the material world and culture” (Wolfe, 1993, p. 6).

In today’s data-rich world, the importance of QR skills will only grow, yet these courses can be difficult to teach. If you’re interested in learning more approaches, consider visiting the National Numeracy Network, Carleton’s QuIRK Initiative, Statlit, or SIGMAA-QL. These organizations provide a wide array of resources for faculty looking to enhance their QR pedagogy.

Thanks to Jim Barber, College of William and Mary; Allyson Bregman, City University of New York, and Theresa Braunschneider, CRLT, for their assistance with this project.

References

Atkinson, M. P., Czaja R. F., & Brewster, Z. W. (2006). Integrating sociological research into large introductory courses: Learning content and increasing quantitative literacy. Teaching Sociology, 34 (1), 54-64.

“Calculus Concept Inventory.” (2009). ContinuUM , University of Michigan Department of Mathematics Newsletter: 6.

Dwyer, C. A., Gallagher, A., Levin, J., Morley, M. E. (2003). What is quantitative reasoning? Defining the construct for assessment purposes . Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Grawe, N. D. (2012, Spring). Achieving a quantitative literate society: Resources and community to support national change. Liberal Education : 30-35.

Hart Research Associates. (2009). Raising the bar: Employers’ views on college learning in the wake of the economic downturn . A survey of employers collected on behalf of the Association of American Colleges and Universities. Washington, DC: Hart Research Associates.

Rhodes, T., Ed. (2010). Assessing outcomes and improving achievement: Tips and tools for using rubrics . Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities.

Schield, M. (2008). Analyzing numbers in the news: A critical-thinking structured approach . Unpublished paper presented at the National Numeracy Network Conference, New London, NH.

Treisman, U. (1992). Studying students studying calculus: A look At the lives of minority mathematics students. College Mathematics Journal, 23 (5), 362-372.

Wolfe, C. R. (1993, Winter). Quantitative reasoning across a college curriculum . College Teaching, 41 (1), 3-9.

Wright, M.C., & Barber, J. (2009). LSA quantitative reasoning assessment: Summary findings . Available: http://www.crlt.umich.edu/assessment/lsaqrassessment
--

*Mary Wright, PhD, Director of Assessment and Associate Research Scientist , Center for Research on Learning and Teaching (CRLT) , University of Michigan , Ann Arbor, MI. 48109-2218 <mcwright@umich.edu>

* Joe Howard, Ph.D. student, Center for the Study of Higher and Postsecondary Education, University of Michigan

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Effective professional development, improved teaching, has been Schoenfeld’s goal throughout his career, improved mathematics teaching in the beginning and with How We Think, improved teaching generally. The aim in constructing a model of teaching has not been the creation of a mold to shape teaching, but the discovery of a tool for understanding it more deeply. As with DNA, each effective teacher will have traits in common with other effective teachers while remaining unique at the same time.

Folks:

The posting below looks at the work of Alan Schoenfeld in developing models for effective teaching. It is by James Rhem, executive director of The National Teaching and Learning Forum (NT&LF) and is #64 in a series of selected excerpts from the publication reproduced here as part of our \"Shared Mission Partnership.\" NT&LF has a wealth of information on all aspects of teaching and learning. If you are not already a subscriber, you can check it out at [http://ntlf.com/about.aspx] The on-line edition of the Forum - like the printed version - offers subscribers insight from colleagues eager to share new ways of helping students reach the highest levels of learning. National Teaching and Learning Forum Newsletter, Volume 22, No 2, February 2013. Copyright ©John Wiley & Sons, Professional and Trade Subscription Content, One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594. Reprinted with permission.
 
Regards,

Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: Do iPads Affect Reading Comprehension and Learning?: The Jury Remains Out

Recall the power of models as tools of inquiry in the growth of human knowledge — the importance of Watson and Crick’s double helix model of DNA for example. Models have always been important as means of drawing together careful observation into an informed hypothesis about how things work. They become a testing ground, a tool, a foundation on which further understanding can be built. But amino acids are one thing and student-teacher interactions are another; or are they? Could careful, analytical observation of teaching lead to a useful general model of teaching? Alan Schoenfeld thinks so and his book How We Think: A Theory of Goal-Oriented Decision Making and its Educational Applications (Routeledge, 2011), the culmination of decades of such observation, lays out a robust case for such a model.

Many engaging discussions of teaching live in a semantic world creating and refining metaphors to describe it. Schoenfeld, a mathematician and a professor at the UC Berkeley Graduate School of Education, approaches the discussion empirically. Internationally recognized for his work in math education, his confidence in models emerges as a natural expression of his mode of thinking and learning. “A very nice thing about models, and
a compelling reason for building them,” he says, “is that they can tell you when you don’t have things quite right.” Even the best metaphors don’t do that, at least in the same way.

Building A Model

Thus, following the success of his influential Mathematical Problem Solving (Academic Press, 1985), Schoenfeld and the Teacher Model Group he heads at Berkeley began investigating student-teacher interactions in the classroom seeking to derive a testable model of them as a means of understanding the deep dynamics of teaching. In numerous charts, graphics, and complete transcripts, How We Think lays out the careful analyses of videotapes of three different teachers spanning the range from expert to novice, from college to grade school, plus analysis of an audio tape of a consultation with a physician. The goal-oriented decision-making model Schoenfeld came up with stands on three legs — resources, goals, and orientations or beliefs — each intertwined with the others and each with its layers of complexity.

Resources, Goals, Orientation/Beliefs

All three of the teachers studied were teaching math and even some of Schoenfeld’s colleagues saw that as the fatal flaw in his noble effort. “‘Math is so precise but history and literature are so vague.’ That’s precisely the argument some colleagues put to me when I was in the middle of this research,” Schoenfeld recalls. “‘You’re not going to be able to model these goals in history and so on,’ they said.”

Schoenfeld didn’t agree: “I argued back, ‘No, it’s because you don’t understand mathematics.’” For Schoenfeld mathematics has more to do with sense making than with “right” answers. The theorems, formulas, and logarithms of math should be compared with the rules of grammar in his view, useful tools in expressing an understanding of things almost always more complex than we can fully grasp, at least for very long.

He points to the most common uses of math in daily life, things like predicting the weather. “What these uses of math produce are actually probability distributions,” he says. They are models that embrace the idea that “ . . . this thing is so complex I can’t understand it, but I can build a model that let’s me come close.” “And when you do that,” says Schoenfeld, “you are approaching the same sort of thinking you do in studying history.”

An empirically derived model might not explain everything about teaching, but it could establish a framework for greatly enriching our understanding.
Convinced of the value of models, Schoenfeld and his team needed a method, a group of guiding assumptions to use in extracting a model from the teaching they observed. Perhaps the most powerful of these was the often unexpressed positive idea that all the teacher’s actions were designed to help students learn, to posit that their moment-to-moment decision making was the result either of prior planning or some “trigger” within exchanges with the students. However obvious that may have seemed in retrospect, it cleared a path into the larger mystery of effective teaching. What lay behind the teacher’s plans? What resources did the teacher bring to the planning? What where the goals for the class? How were they set? And what attitudes or what came to be called “orientations or beliefs” governed the planning and its execution? Moreover, how did these resources, goals, and orientations reassemble and re-prioritize in response to different sorts of expected or unexpected “triggers”?

What’s Not Said

The first teacher examined in depth was Mark Nelson, then in a teacher preparation program, who’d had something unsettling happen in his conduct of a class on reducing fractions. He wanted some help figuring out what had gone awry and ended up bringing videotape to Schoenfeld and the Teacher Model Group. “It only took us four months to figure out what happen,” Schoenfeld remembers. “It turned out to be pretty important. He was in a situation where his understanding of teaching was ‘I want to work with the things my students generate for me. So as long as what they say gives me an entry, I can build on that and clarify.’ ” Nelson was committed to question and clarification — the familiar IRE mode of “Initiation-Response-Evaluation.” He wanted his class to be about sense making. He didn’t want to dictate procedures and have students memorize and repeat them. He wanted the concepts not simply to be accepted, but to make sense at every turn. But in the lesson, reducing fractions led to a turning point where, to the students, reducing x5 over x5 to get x0 looked as though x equaled zero instead of one. Nelson needed a student to suggest “one” as the answer, and when it didn’t come, he was stuck.

“He was ineffective because of his beliefs about what was appropriate to do in the classroom which made it that much harder for him to understand and change,” says Schoenfeld, “because those beliefs were implicit. He’d never made them explicit.” And, of course, things unspoken often have the greatest power.

The Power Of Beliefs

As the research continued, “beliefs” continued to emerge as a key, often unarticulated, factor governing teachers’ decision making. Analyses of other, more experienced, highly skilled teachers added to the model even as they tested its validity. Teachers enter the classroom with an array of resources. They have knowledge of their subject of course—the facts—but they also have procedural knowledge about how things work and conceptual knowledge of how things fit together into larger systems, and they accrue sets of problem-solving strategies (knowing how to do things). And just as they have these kinds of knowledge about their subject, the more they teach the more they develop parallel sets of knowledge about pedagogy or “pedagogical content knowledge,” strategies for navigating troublesome concepts and dealing with the unexpected. But despite such commonalities, teachers teach in different ways. They share a common aim—student learning—but they have different ideas about how to achieve it. And both in their planning and in their moment-to-moment decisions and actions these personal orientations toward teaching shuffle their goals and access to their resources and explain the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of their teaching.

“So going up a level,” Schoenfeld continues, “teachers develop all sorts of beliefs about the nature of mathematics, about the nature of their students and what’s appropriate pedagogy. They may well be unaware of those beliefs, but those beliefs shape what they do with students. And that’s why the framework of knowledge, beliefs/ orientations, and goals is so critically important. If you want to do professional development, it’s not going to take hold unless you actually manage to meet teachers where their beliefs are because if they are unaware of them and those beliefs are shaping what they do, then your professional development is not going to have any impact.”

Effective professional development, improved teaching, has been Schoenfeld’s goal throughout his career, improved mathematics teaching in the beginning and with How We Think, improved teaching generally. The aim in constructing a model of teaching has not been the creation of a mold to shape teaching, but the discovery of a tool for understanding it more deeply. As with DNA, each effective teacher will have traits in common with other effective teachers while remaining unique at the same time.

Using The Model

While Schoenfeld’s work springs from analysis of teaching in mathematics, he believes that the processes of teaching, the deep processes, are fundamentally the same across disciplines. What his research has found falls a long way from proof, he admits, but, he says, that’s what the next twenty years are for. What seems quite clear, however, is that any productive use of the model for analysis of any teaching and any formative improvement of teaching will have to take on the intimate and dangerous matter of externalizing and making explicit the teacher’s personal orientations and beliefs. Because these involve egos and personal histories for teachers just as they do for students, getting them out clearly and calmly remains a complex human challenge. But Schoenfeld has already seen examples of this being done successfully.

Schoenfeld offers a number of examples including work done by Abraham Arcavi who teaches at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. Arcavi also used videotapes, but he began with tapes that weren’t close to home, tapes of teachers in Germany and Japan.

“He knew that there are two initial humps you have to get over,” says Schoenfeld. “One is teachers’ resistance to letting each other in on each other’s practice either live or videotaped. The second is a tendency to be judgmental. You look at a tape and you go ‘I would do it differently.’” And, indeed, when first viewing teaching from Japan where a teacher may spend an hour on one question, the first reaction was “Well, they can do that in Japan; Japanese kids are different.”

Arcavi countered by telling his colleagues they weren’t there to judge, but to be more analytical and ask, “What do you think the Japanese teachers were thinking about their students and about learning when they structured their lessons the way they did? What are the things these teachers must believe for them to be acting this way in the classroom?” These questions turned the discussion toward a search for the positive springs of action and away from traditional critique.

The group moved on to looking at tapes of teachers in the United States who were basically spoon feeding their students answers and then, in time, to reflections on their own teaching.

Schoenfeld says: “What happens in this kind of context is that people begin to talk about some of these things pretty openly because it’s not about them, it’s someone on a videotape. If they build the right kind of community where they see that the other people are pursuing those issues without being judgmental, and then you start looking at videotapes from people in your own group. If a couple of people who are a bit more confident start off the conversations, and the conversations work, then they open up and you’ll be surprised what happens.”

Toward the end of our interview, I ask Schoenfeld if time in the trenches acquiring “pedagogical content knowledge” isn’t perhaps the key. “That’s a part of the story,” he replies. “The thing that characterized the true expertise of expert teachers is that they are superb at listening to their students, at hearing what their students are actually saying, meeting the students where they are, and creating a space where the students can learn productively.”

“That’s a core part of their belief system. What happens is if you think it’s important, you can develop that skill, and that’s where that body of pedagogical content knowledge gets developed over the years. . . . You can get very good at engaging the kids in activities, but you are not going to develop the pedagogical content knowledge of listening to your kids and adapting appropriately if that’s not a focus of yours and you think that good materials will do it.”

Schoenfeld’s model doesn’t explain why seeing clearly and listening carefully seem so difficult, but it points clearly to the triumph of learning to do both.
--

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Folks:

The posting below looks at some monetizing strategies for Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs).  It is by Kristen Domonell at University Business Solutions for Higher Education: http://www.universitybusiness.com/article/eight-possible-coursera-monetization-strategies (April 18, 2013). The posting originally appears at The SCUP (Society for College and University Planning) Scan, to which you can subscribe free at: http://www.scup.org/page/pubs/sen/mem-sub. Planning for Higher Education News and Notes of Interest.| Volume 26, Number 16 | April 22-28, 2013 | Society for College and University Planning | 1330 Eisenhower Pl | Ann Arbor | MI | 48108 | 734.764.2000

Regards,

Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: Motherhood: How Faculty Manage Work and Family

How might a company or institution profit from a MOOC? Here are eight possible strategies, as outlined in Coursera's contract with the University of Michigan.

1. Certification: Company will provide University-branded certificates that can be purchased by end users; these certificates, which do not carry University credit, will certify achievement by end users of an instructor-specified threshold of performance for a particular course. These certificates might be provided as either (a) a signed pdf document, or (b) a badge posted on LinkedIn, Facebook, Google+, or other community websites, via a recognized badging system.

2. Secure assessments: Company may provide an end user, for a fee, the capability to undergo identity-verified testing at a private ocation or in a certified testing location.

3. Employee recruiting: With end user consent (via opting into emails of this type), company will allow prospective employers (whether an employer or a recruiter) to execute queries against end user records. These queries might involve student performance in relevant courses (as specified in the query) as well as student-supplied demograpic information (such as education or geographical location). Company will then allow employers to email end users via the platform, to propose employment opportunities. Company will not reveal student contact information to the employer. Students may choose to respond to the email with their contact information at their discretion.

4. Employee or university screening: Company will provide a prospective employer the capability to assess prospective employees for a given level of expertise in courses provided by company, by having the prospective employee take a set of assessments in a proctored environment at the employee site. A similar model will be offered to universities who want to verify a level of knowledge of incoming end users (e.g., for evaluting course waiver requests).

5. Human-provided tutoring or manual grading: Company will provide access to (paid) human tutoring, grading, or other forms of human academic support.

6. Corporate/university enterprise model: Company will provide employers access to an enterprise version of the platform, which will allow employers to (a) use the content for training employees (trainees) using courses provided on the platform, (b) provide employer instructors access to trainee performance records, for the purposes of gauging performance and assisting trainees in learning. Employers might also augment university-provided courses on the platforms with additional content of particular relevance to their own employee pool. Such content will be accessible only to employer's trainees. The same model can be used to provide an enterprise version of the platform to non-university academic institutions (e.g. community colleges) that seek to offer their registered end users higher-quality courses at a lower cost for credit at these non-university institutions.

7. Sponsorships: Company will allow third party sponsorships of courses, by foundations or companies, using appropriate and non-intrusive visual elements on the course webpage. A sponsor will require the approval by university and instructor, but such approval will not be unreasonably witheld without cause.

8. Tuition fees: For certain courses, a tuition fee may be charged of students for access to the course content (usually after a short initial viewing period where access is free). This fee will be mututally agreed to by university and company. In the standard procedure, an end user will be allowed to indicate "financial hardship," upon which tuition fees are automatically waived with respect to access to course content. Certification to a end user declaring financial hardship may or may not be provided, as agreed upon by university and company.

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Proactive support from administrators of educational institutes would play an important role in encouraging bicycling. They need to work out policies which support and sustain bicycle infrastructure, road usage planning and restrictions on motorized vehicle usage. They need to study fresh ideas, examine alternate options suitable for the specific needs of their campuses and implement them to increase the bicycle usage. Many studies have shown a close link between proactive interventions by the administrators and increased usage of bicycles [20]. The bicycle is no longer only for the poor who cannot afford to have an automobile. It is a must possession for everyone in a futuristic 21st century which will see a sizeable proportion of the world population living in congested cities.

Folks:

The posting below is a bit unusual but it looks at an important phenomenon, the growing use of bicycles on college campuses particularly in Asia.  As a long-time cyclist myself  (see www.fullbodybicycle.com) I am happy to see this development. The article is by Professor M. Jagadesh Kumar, electrical engineering department, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016  http://web.iitd.ac.in/~mamidala Reprinted with permission.

Regards,

Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: Eight Possible Coursera Monetization Strategies

If you happen to visit Paris next time, try cycling across the Paris city using the bicycles offered by Velib, an initiative run by Paris Town Hall since 2007. This is a big bicycle sharing facility in the world with 20,000 bicycles at your service 24/7. You can move around the entire Paris city with bicycles available in 1800 bicycle stations at every 300 meter distance [1]. With growing vehicular congestion, rising fuel costs and choking pollution, sapiens are now increasingly drawn to the good wheels. There are many cities in the world which are bicycle friendly such as Amsterdam, Barcelona, Berlin, Copenhagen, Paris in Europe and Boulder, Chicago, Davis, Ottawa, Portland, San Francisco in North America, Beijing in Asia, Cape Town, Bogota and Perth in Australia [2].

London city in the United Kingdom has implemented a bicycle sharing scheme known as Barclays Cycle Hire or BCH in 2010. In 2012, BCH had about 8000 bicycles with 570 docking stations [3]. Barcelona’s new transport system, known as Bicing has more than 400 bike stations placed strategically near bus stops and metro stations [4]. Many North American cities are actively promoting increased use of bicycles as an alternative mode of transportation through large public campaigns and by investing in bicycle infrastructure and bicycle sharing programs [5]. In Munster, a German town with a population of 273,000, people use bicycles more often (37.8%) than cars (36.4%) as the main mode of transportation [6].

Despite the fact that the world is rediscovering the wheels without fuel, India seems to be going the other way – the automobile style.  The economic survey of Delhi (2012-2013) tells us a disturbing trend – the number of households in Delhi owning a bicycle has come down from 37.6 % in 2001 to 30.6 % in 2011 [7]. This is either because India is advancing economically letting more people to own motorized vehicles or Indian roads are becoming notoriously the least safe places to ride any vehicle, leave alone bicycles. Safety of bicyclists is of no concern to the road planners in India anyway [8,9] and that perhaps acts as the biggest deterrent to the people to “hit” the road on their bicycles.

Not hearsay – It is scientific:

While you do not have to be a rocket scientist to realize that using bicycles for transport in place of fuel based vehicles has vast benefits in terms of health and environment, there are indeed systematic scientific studies to quantify such paybacks.  A contemporary scrutiny in New Zealand using the data available in the urban settings shows that a mere shift of 5% of the distance travelled by vehicles to bicycling would lead to a reduction of approximately 223 million kilometers travelled by vehicles each year. This can result in a saving of about 22 million liters of fuel and therefore a reduction in the transport-related greenhouse emissions [10].

A number of investigations also confirm the individual and population-level health benefits of using bicycles.  A recent analysis of Swedish children, conducted over a period of 6 years, has shown that those who used bicycles to commute to the school have improved their cardiorespiratory fitness more than those using passive modes of commuting including walking [11]. Bicycling has also been shown to reduce the cardiometabolic risk factors leading to a potential prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease (CVD) [12]. Bicycling leads to less weight gain particularly among overweight and obese women [13].

But where are the safe roads for bicycle riders?

A study of bicyclists in the Portland, Oregon metropolitan area has shown that well-connected neighbourhood streets and bicycle specific infrastructure have encouraged more adults to bicycling for utilitarian purposes [14]. Safe roads are, therefore, an essential pre-requisite for popularizing bicycle usage. Changing the Indian road landscape to make them bicycle friendly is not in our hands as individual citizens. The best we could do is to create awareness and bring pressure on the policy makers to act. Like many other peaceful public campaigns or agitations, we never know how long it would take for public pressure to succeed in bringing such changes to make the Indian road bicycle friendly. We, however, cannot keep waiting eternally. But, as individuals and small communities consisting of students, staff and faculty in Universities and higher educational institutes, can we do something to bring the bicycling back into our lives?

If you leave out the treacherous Indian roads and highways, are there any safe roads in India where we can use bicycles for short distance transport? Luckily, the answer is yes. The best places to start such initiatives could be the campuses of Indian universities and higher educational institutes where a large population of students, staff and faculty live and commute on campus. Why not make a beginning on these campuses and showcase it as a model to emulate by the rest of the society? There are many North American universities which have successfully implemented campus bicycle sharing programs [15] and they compete with each other in promoting such programs.

What about accidents even on campus roads?

Road users in India excel in disregarding the traffic rules.  Even bicycle riders need to respect the road rules! Cyclists are frequently prone to accidents, particularly if they are seen as a minority on the roads jostling for space. Most accidents involving bicyclists occur at the road intersections. However, there is now strong empirical evidence to show that the chances of a bicyclist involving in a collision with a motor vehicle are inversely proportional to the number of people bicycling on the roads – a pattern that has been shown to be consistent across the cities and countries around the world [16]. Motorists adjust their behaviour and reduce their vehicle’s speed when they see a large number of people bicycling on the roads [17].  This is another reason why more people should be using the bicycles on their campuses.

Are there any Indian initiatives?

Unlike in the American universities, which are rated for their pro-active bicycle sharing programs by the League of American Bicyclists [15], campus bicycle initiatives are not yet popular in Indian educational institutes.  An interesting initiative in Bangalore city called “Namma Cycle” is worth to take notice of by all the educational institutes with large populations on their campuses [18]. The objective of the Namma Cycle concept is to raise public awareness about environmental friendly transport options for easy connectivity.  In Kannada language, “namma” means ours.  In the place of “my bicycle” or “your bicycle”, the “our bicycle” concept is expected to encourage the idea of community sharing and community ownership of bicycles. Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore is the first top Indian educational institute which has adopted the Namma Cycle model with a modest beginning of 150 bicycles and four bicycle stations. IISc plans to soon scale up this experiment by adding additional bicycles and bicycle stations. We need more such examples. Student-led bicycle initiatives are bound to succeed since they are in a majority on any campus.

We have no road space in our campus. What can we do?

Existing campuses may not have enough road space to create dedicated bicycle specific tracks and it is easy to brush away any suggestions for introducing bicycle initiatives claiming it is too difficult to implement. In such cases, there are other options available such as “sharrows” or shared lane markings to provide guidance to both the bicyclist and motorist by means of signage painted on the road. Sharrows will also minimize the wrong-way of bicycling by encouraging the bicyclists to confine themselves to the shared part of the road. The sharrows are often colored, like in the Stanford University, to alert the motorists that they are expected to share the road with the bicyclists. Creation of a combination of (i) sharrows on narrow roads, (ii) contiguous bicycle specific tracks on wider roads, (iii) safe intersections or round-abouts to minimize conflicts between bicyclists and motorists, (iv) secure bicycle parking spaces to minimize thefts, (v) appropriate road safety signage  and (vi) 24/7 bicycle repair stands should still be a possibility in old campuses. Remember that Amsterdam did not have a bicycle initiative before 1970’s and commuters used only motorized vehicles. However, a sustained effort by the policy makers and the commuters has now resulted in making the city a bicyclist’s paradise in the world.

When we build new educational campuses, the regulatory authorities should make it mandatory for the Universities to create the best bicycle infrastructure including dedicated bicycle paths and vehicle free zones where only bicycling or walking is permitted. Appropriate laws and policies should be in place to prevent any new higher educational institute from building their campus without such a commitment.

Proactive measures are the key:

The perceived opinion of others about you using a bicycle does not really affect your decision to use a bicycle.  The factors that influence the use of a bicycle depend on awareness, direct trip-based benefits and safety factors [19]. To create public awareness on the usefulness of bicycle usage, electronic media and newspapers should encourage such efforts by giving a wide publicity. Bicycle manufacturers, cycling communities and administrators of the University campuses should join hands in bringing the bicycles back to the center-stage by creating bicycle friendly campus transport infrastructure.

Proactive support from administrators of educational institutes would play an important role in encouraging bicycling. They need to work out policies which support and sustain bicycle infrastructure, road usage planning and restrictions on motorized vehicle usage. They need to study fresh ideas, examine alternate options suitable for the specific needs of their campuses and implement them to increase the bicycle usage. Many studies have shown a close link between proactive interventions by the administrators and increased usage of bicycles [20]. The bicycle is no longer only for the poor who cannot afford to have an automobile. It is a must possession for everyone in a futuristic 21st century which will see a sizeable proportion of the world population living in congested cities.

What are you waiting for?

If you are a campus living lucky person, stash away your car keys in the cupboard or avoid using the campus bus transport and leap onto your bicycle. Ride your bicycle with the conviction that you are bettering yourself and the planet that sustains you. Get started. Do it today. There is no time to hold your fire for tomorrow.

REFERENCES:

1. http://en.velib.paris.fr/
2. http://edition.cnn.com/2011/TRAVEL/05/06/bike.friendly.cities.matador/index.html
3. http://www.tfl.gov.uk/
4. http://www.tourist-barcelona.com/default15.asp?view=barcelona-transport/bicing
5. J. Strauss, L. M.-Moreno, D. Crouse, M. S. Goldberg, N. A. Ross and M. Hatzopoulou, “Investigating the link between cyclist volumes and air pollution along bicycle facilities in a dense urban core,” Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Vol.17, pp.619-625, December 2012.
6. C. Juhra, B. Wieskotter, K. Chu, L. Trost, U. Weiss, M. Messerschmidt, A. Malczyk, M. Heckwolf and M. Raschke, “Bicycle accidents – Do we only see the tip of the iceberg? A prospective multi-centre study in a large German city combining medical and police data,” Injury-International Journal of the Care of the Injured, Vol.43, pp.2026-2034, December 2012.
7. The economic survey of Delhi (2012-2013), Chapter 12: Transport- available at http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/DoIT_Planning/planning/our+services1/economic+survey+of+delhi+2012-13
8. G. Gururaj, “Road Safety in India: A Framework for Action,” National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences, Publication no 83, Bangalore, 2011. http://www.nimhans.kar.nic.in/epidemiology/bisp/rsi2011.pdf
9. G. Gururaj, “Road traffic and disabilities in India: Current scenario,” The National Medical Journal of India, Vol.21, pp.14-20, 2008.
10. G. Lindsay, A. Macmillan and A. Woodward, “Moving urban trips from cars to bicycles: impact on health and emissions,” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, Vol.35, pp.54-60, February 2011.
11. P. Chillon, F. B. Ortega, J. R. Ruiz, K. R. Evenson, I. Labayen, V. Martinez-Vizcaino, A. Hurtig-Wennlof, T. Veidebaum and M. Sjostrom, “Bicycling to school is associated with improvements in physical fitness over a 6-year follow-up period in Swedish children,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 55, pp.108-112, 2012.
12. L. Ostergaard, L. A. B.  Borrestad, J. Tarp and L. B. Andersen, “Bicycling to school improves the cardiometabolic risk factor profile: a randomised controlled trial,” BMJ Open, Vol.2, Article Number: e001307, 2012.
13. A. C. Lusk, R. A. Mekary, D. Feskanich and W.C. Willett, “Bicycle Riding, Walking, and Weight Gain in Premenopausal Women,” Archives of Internal Medicine, Vol.170, pp.1050-1056, 2010.
14. J. Dill, “Bicycling for Transportation and Health: The Role of Infrastructure,” Journal of Public Health Policy, Vol.30, pp.S95-S110, 2009.
15. http://blog.bikeleague.org/blog/2013/04/bicycle-friendly-university-ivy-league-continues-the-high-marks/
16. P. L. Jacobsen, “Safety in numbers: more walkers and bicyclists, safer walking and bicycling,” Injury Prevention, Vol.9, pp.205-209, 2003.
17. L. Chen, C. Chen, R. Srinivasan, C. E.  McKnight, R. Ewing and M. Roe, “Evaluating the Safety Effects of Bicycle Lanes in New York City”, American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 102, pp.1120-1127, 2012.
18. http://www.nammacycle.in/
19. E. Heinen, K. Maat and B. van Wee, “The role of attitudes toward characteristics of bicycle commuting on the choice to cycle to work over various distances,” Transportation Research Part D – Transport and Environment, Vol.16, pp.102-109, 2011.
20. J. Pucher, J. Dill and S. Handy, “Infrastructure, programs, and policies to increase bicycling: An international review,” Preventive Medicine, Vol.50, pp.S106-S125, 2010.

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Folks:

The posting below looks at suggestions for chairs to consider for assisting faculty as they manage work and family. It is by Lisa Wolf-Wendel and Kelly Ward (see end of posting for further information).  The article is from The Department Chair: A Resource for Academic Administrators, Spring 2013, Vol. 23, No. 4. For further information on how to subscribe, as well as pricing and discount information, please contact, Sandy Quade, Account Manager, John Wiley & Sons, Phone: (203) 643-8066 (squadepe@wiley.com). or see: http://www.departmentchairs.org/journal.aspx.

Regards,

Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: Back to Basics: Why Every Student and Professor Should Ride a Bicycle on a University Campus

Institutions of higher education are increasingly recognizing that being family-friendly is an asset for faculty recruitment and retention. Over the last decade, a growing number of colleges and universities instituted policies for new parents including tenure clock extensions, reductions in teaching duties, and parental leaves, to name just a few. In terms of policies and accommodations, much of the focus is on junior faculty and accommodating birth; there is less attention to the work/family needs of midcareer or more senior faculty. Institutions tend to assume that once faculty earn tenure and once children grow older that managing work and family integration comes naturally and does not require institutional support. Our research shows that this is not necessarily a safe conclusion, especially for women faculty with children. The academic career and parenthood are both lifelong commitments and higher education institutions are best served by recognizing this and responding affirmatively to work and family needs at all stages of the career. Failure to do so could result in continued gender stratification in the profession and possibly the loss of talented professionals in the field.

This article offers recommendations for department chairs to help early and midcareer faculty members manage work and family. These suggestions grow out of findings from our longitudinal research project on how more than one hundred tenure-track women faculty from different institutional types and across disciplinary fields managed work and family at the early-career stage (when they face the dual pressures of tenure and infants) and then again as these same women face midcareer challenges and older children. (For a complete analysis of the study results, see Ward and Wolf-Wendel 2012.) Our research indicates that it is possible to manage a work/family balance, but that as women’s academic careers and families evolve they face different kinds of challenges and pressures. The findings also suggest that department chairs play a key role in helping faculty at both career stages navigate the work and family terrain.

The Findings

The early-career results show that the academic career is consuming and greedy (as is parenthood), but that the autonomy and flexibility of the position make managing multiple roles possible. During the early career, even when policies are available, faculty members are reticent to use them. Midcareer faculty were less stressed about managing work and family but were, in general, not making progress toward professional advancement as hoped. Many were fearful of institutional politics related to promotion and were content to “stay put” on the professional ladder. For some, it appeared that career advancement was incompatible with being a good parent. At both career stages, women were “making it work” through their own efforts and choices and relied little on assistance from their institutions or their departments. While it is important for faculty to manage their own lives, chairs play an essential role in assisting both junior faculty as they navigate the hurdles of tenure and midcareer faculty as they develop into successful senior scholars.

Our research findings point directly to departmental contexts and the role chairs play in helping faculty manage work and family integration. Chairs must be familiar with policies, apply them fairly, and educate faculty about their use. This education must be extended to those who may use the policies as well as to those who evaluate the faculty members who use them (annually as well as for promotion and tenure). Above all, department chairs must be proactive in maintaining an open climate, where policy issues regarding work and family are discussed forth-rightly. The following are specific suggestions for chairs to consider for assisting faculty as they manage work and family.

All Faculty

Effective policies and practices and an accommodating culture encourage all faculty to be productive and successful department members.

Be aware of and advocate for institution-wide policy. Chairs need to know which policies exist on campus. If there are no (or limited) policies, chairs must be leaders in creating them. Campuses are becoming increasingly competitive when it comes to offering leaves as part of recruitment and retention plans, and those with more progressive policies stand to recruit and retain more qualified faculty than those without.

Call for department chair training. The widespread lack of awareness regarding work and family policy suggests that the topic is not discussed at department chair meetings or at new chair orientations. Chairs would do well to be leaders among their peers in starting the conversation.

Break the silence. A major finding of our study is that few people talk about work and family issues, especially with the person having a baby. Department chairs must take the lead in discussing work/family issues with their departmental colleagues. Silence may often indicate a respect for personal boundaries, but creating a hospitable climate for work and family issues calls first and foremost for talking about it.

Share the wealth. Creative solutions to help faculty manage work and family must be shared. Talk about work and family within the department and with chair colleagues.

Understand power differentials. Chairs sometimes do not know their own power. One of the reasons faculty are fearful to ask department chairs for “help” is their awareness of the power chairs have to make decisions that can affect the faculty career. By recognizing their own power, chairs may be better able to understand why a new assistant professor is reluctant to talk about modifying duties to have a baby.

Recognize that one size does not fit all. We are strong advocates for centralized policy offerings, but no one policy can meet all faculty needs. Chairs may need to be creative with how they translate policy options for individual faculty members. A faculty member with a baby born with complications may need different accommodation from a faculty member with a trouble-free pregnancy. The same is true at all career phases.

Adopt a life-course perspective. There are different phases to the academic career, and adopting a long view—a life-course perspective—can shift the emphasis of work and family as being the concern of only a few to being the concern of many. We have heard from chairs that they are nervous about accommodating junior women faculty with children and not others. Adopting a life-course perspective can show that people may need accommodation at any time and for a variety reasons. Senior faculty members may have family concerns as well, ranging from providing for adolescents to caring for aging parents. If departments take a life-course perspective, then accommodations and support can be provided for faculty at all stages of the academic career.

Early-Career Faculty.

Institutional context shapes the overall experience of early-career faculty. Departmental climate and the institutional mission influence faculty’s daily work and family lives.

Provide options for covering classes. A significant concern for the early-career faculty members in our study was how to cover classes during the semester a baby is born. Opting for an unpaid leave (as provided by the Family Medical Leave Act) is often not an affordable option for many faculty, and the twelve-week leave provided does not account for the length of a typical academic term. Further, many new professors do not have sick time to compensate for a semester leave. In helping faculty respond to work/family demands, department chairs must think carefully about what needs to be taught, when, and by whom. There are several ways chairs can help (depending on the specific policies of the institution):

•  Modified duties: Faculty continue to engage in service or research obligations but are relieved from teaching responsibilities for a
   term. Courses would be canceled or taught by someone else.
•  Bank courses: Faculty teach an overload in a different semester so as to not teach during the semester in question.
•  Team teaching: Faculty team-teach a course with another professor, adjunct, or graduate teaching assistant.
•  Alternative formats: Courses are offered in formats with more flexibility (online, condensed).

Offer support for breast feeding. Breast-feeding mothers have unique needs that must be recognized and accommodated. New mothers who are breast feeding should be provided with private, clean spaces to pump and store breast milk. Faculty members often have private offices, but if that is not the case then it is up to departments and units to provide lactation spaces.

Midcareer Faculty

Midcareer faculty must manage family responsibilities while thinking about the myriad of opportunities available to established faculty members, including administration, promotion to full professor, and changes in responsibilities.

Regenerate academic careers through modified duties. Helping midcareer faculty shift their priorities could mean allowing limited teaching for a semester or a year to reestablish a research program or reducing service for a year as a way to encourage research or teaching productivity. Sabbaticals serve this renewal process, but we found that many faculty members took their sabbaticals shortly after receiving tenure and were not eligible for another leave even though they were eligible to be considered for promotion. A modified duty policy for mid-career faculty can help prepare them for promotion to full professor.

Offer mentoring and support for faculty throughout the career. Mentorship tends to focus on helping junior faculty achieve tenure. Mentoring should continue beyond tenure to help faculty members be mindful of career advancement and the need to maintain productivity. Formalized mentoring should be available to help prepare department members as they move through the faculty and administrative pipeline.

Clarify expectations for promotion to full professor. The tenure process is known for its ambiguity. In response, many campuses have developed mentoring programs, faculty handbooks, and professional development materials geared toward junior faculty. Going up for full professor is also fraught with uncertainty and there is little information available to help faculty decode this process. Campuses wanting to help faculty members at all stages of their careers would do well to provide more detailed information about when faculty are eligible for full professor and what is required. This information should appear in faculty handbooks, be part of the annual review process, and be the subject of professional development workshops so that tenured faculty members can be prompted to think about career advancement.

Provide professional development opportunities for administration. Many campuses have specified goals to diversify their administrative ranks in terms of race and gender. However, our midcareer faculty interviews revealed little interest on the part of respondents in regard to moving into formal administrative positions. This is due in part to family responsibilities, but it is also tied to concerns about dealing with campus politics, conflict, and difficult personalities. Professional development programs could help provide greater understanding of administrative roles and help faculty learn more about administrative processes. These programs could also provide part-time opportunities for faculty to engage in administrative roles under the guidance of an administrative mentor.

Conclusion

Too often work and family dialogue is about early-career faculty members who have infants. This type of conversation is important, but it should not preclude discussion of the needs of faculty at all career stages and with family members of all ages. It is just as important for department chairs to be mindful of how work/family concerns affect their more senior colleagues as they do their more junior ones. In order to create equitable work environments for faculty, there must be more proactive measures in place than just adding women at the junior levels and hoping that they progress through the pipeline. Colleges and universities must recognize that faculty at all career stages need support and care in order to be productive and successful. We hope the suggestions presented here inspire department chairs to take the initiative to help their faculty who have immediate work and family concerns. Departments that are open to meeting faculty needs and offering reasonable accommodation are likely to be healthy and hospitable places to work that can better recruit and retain high-quality faculty.    

---------------    

Lisa Wolf-Wendel is a professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at the University of Kansas. Kelly Ward is chair of the Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling Psychology at Washington State University. Email: lwolf@ku.edu, kaward@ wsu.edu

References
Ward, Kelly, and Lisa Wolf-Wendel. 2012. Academic Motherhood: How Faculty Manage Work and Family. Bruns- wick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

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Though many negotiation talks center on financial terms, approach job offers with a whole package in mind. For example, additional vacation time may be more important than a starting bonus, because of work/life balance or because vacation time is a more permanent benefit than a one-time, taxable bonus. Again, different fields have different standards. Within research and academic science, for example, space, equipment, and staff may be far more important, and easier, to negotiate than salary.

Folks:

The posting below looks at six common myths about negotiating for an academic position. The original audience is postdocs but the ideas expressed have a broader relevance.  It is by Stephanie Eberle and it appeared in the February 1, 2013 Careers issue of The Scientist: Magazine of the Life Sciences [http://the-scientist.com/]. © Copyright 2013, The Scientist, Inc. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.

Regards,

Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: Work and Family Integration for Faculty: Recommendations for Chairs

Tomorrow's Graduate Students and Postdocs

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Let's Make a Deal-Six myths about job and salary negotiations and how they may hinder your ability to bargain effectively.

Yuki sat in my office at the Stanford University School of Medicine Career Center, as many graduate students have before, and detailed the two postdoc job offers she had received in spite of an ongoing recession. She had heard she should negotiate, but had no idea how to proceed. When asked what she wanted to get out of the agreement, she responded, “I’m not good at this. I mean, why would they want to hire me?”

Weeks earlier, one of her classmates, Ray (both Ray and Yuki are fictitious names to protect the identities of my students), was in the opposite predicament. He came to my office because all three of his job offers had been rescinded after he attempted to negotiate, which he had done because he felt he should. When asked how he approached the negotiations, he said, “I simply told them I needed more money because I graduated with a PhD from Stanford.”

With recent legislation mandating equal pay for women, and reports that a woman makes, on average, 77–80 cents for every dollar a man earns, it is tempting to see these two scenarios as “gendered”: to assume that Yuki may settle for less because she is not confident in the process, as women “tend to be,” and that Ray’s overconfidence cost him three jobs, a mistake commonly attributed to men. In fact, both faced the negotiation question with unhealthy assumptions about the process, which ultimately hurt their cases. Here are the most common job negotiation myths and what to do about them.

Myth 1: You must negotiate

There are two types of negotiations: distributive and integrative. Negotiating a painting’s price with an art dealer, for example, is distributive. You may never see the dealer again, so focusing on the best bargain is more important than concerning yourself with maintaining a relationship.

Negotiations with future employers are integrative, which means you will (if all goes well) see them again; starting and maintaining a good relationship is therefore your most important concern.

The best approach is to enter the negotiation with a rationale that fits both parties. The Harvard Negotiation Project within Harvard Law School provides research and resources focused on the theory and practice of conflict resolution and negotiation. Researchers within the program recommend knowing the following before you begin:

• Best alternative to a negotiated agreement: What are your other options?
• Reservation price: What is the least you can accept?
• Zone of possible agreement: Where are you willing to settle?

Through answering these questions, you may find the offer reasonable or even better than you had anticipated. It’s also a good idea to know your own worth. Comparing standards in your field on sites like the American Association of University Professors (AAUP), Career Insider, Radford, Glassdoor, Salary.com, and The Scientist’s own Salary Survey can help. It’s important to remember that these rarely offer precise benchmarks of salary. However, comparisons of the information can offer a good sense of range. Additionally, in some fields, such as management consulting, negotiation is not even common. In effect, if you have found no solid reason for negotiating other than simply wanting a little more cash for extracurricular activities, it may be better for your professional relationship not to do so.

Myth 2: Negotiation is a disingenuous process

While you do not have to negotiate if you don’t want to or cannot make a solid case for doing so, your starting package is a baseline for all other future raises, promotions, and opportunities. So reason to negotiate does exist, but what if it just isn’t you?

Make it about you—and them. The basis for myth 2 is a belief that negotiation is an attempt to take advantage of someone. The goal of any negotiation, whether professional or personal, should be reaching a “zone of tolerance,” or an area where both of you feel a little comfort and a little discomfort. If you are focused entirely on what you want or entirely on what you think the prospective employer wants to hear, the process becomes less genuine. Develop a personal budget plan to determine the difference between what you want and need; listen to what the future employer wants and needs; and find a fit between these interests.

Myth 3: Negotiation really means asking for more money

Even though many negotiation talks center on financial terms, approach job offers with a whole package in mind. For example, additional vacation time may be more important than a starting bonus, because of work/life balance or because vacation time is a more permanent benefit than a one-time, taxable bonus. Again, different fields have different standards. Within research and academic science, for example, space, equipment, and staff may be far more important, and easier, to negotiate than salary.

Besides those mentioned above, other common negotiable offerings may include: start date, start-up funding, professional development opportunities, job-title change, teaching load, part-time/working from home, relocation costs, parking/commuting costs, and early/delayed review times. Insurance and related benefits are typically standardized per organization and can therefore be more difficult to negotiate. Still, these are just standards, and many people make the mistake of simply not exploring the breadth of possibilities available.

Regardless of what you seek, know what you want ahead of time so that you are able to fully assess how well the entire offer fits with your interests.

Myth 4: There is a negotiation “type” and you either have it or don’t

Yuki believed that she was not the negotiating “type,” seeing herself as unassertive or perhaps too genuine. Kenneth Thomas and Ralph Kilmann, creators of the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI), identify five negotiator styles, all of which can result in successful outcomes, depending on how, when, and why they are implemented:

1. Avoider: chooses not to negotiate at all
2. Accommodator: focuses primarily on understanding the other side’s interests
3. Compromiser: intends to “split the difference”
4. Competitor: focuses on getting the best possible outcome for self
5. Collaborator: tries to find ways to understand and satisfy both sides

Most of us fall strongly into one or two of these categories. Luckily, the best type of negotiator is a combination of numbers 2 through 5. Early on, you may want to start as an accommodator, and/or as a competitor. In the middle, you may want to take a more collaborative stance and, in the end, move more fully toward compromise. The TKI measures which of these styles suits you best, but each has its strengths and weaknesses. Unlike Yuki, you should start your negotiations with a very distinct awareness of your strengths and weaknesses both as a negotiator and as a candidate, and give yourself the credit you deserve. As a result, you’ll be better equipped to communicate your case with confidence.

Myth 5: Men are better at this than women

When I ask audiences and clients to list separately the leadership traits of men and women, the lists are invariably similar. But, of the negotiation types above, men are given credit for being more competitive and women more accommodating. However, successful negotiation will not result from an extreme in either direction, suggesting that neither of these styles is an inherent strength or weakness. What we do know is that women do not ask for as much.

According to Linda Babcock and Sara Laschever, authors of Women Don’t Ask, women may compromise too quickly, fearing that asserting their own interests will either ruin a relationship with future colleagues or seem overly aggressive. It is not that women are satisfied with less or that they don’t value negotiating. Rather, there exists a fear of discrimination or rejection if they do so too aggressively. As a result, I have found that women are more likely to negotiate on someone else’s behalf (e.g., a family member), apologize, confuse assertiveness with aggression, feel like they have to act stereotypically masculine, and ruminate about the interaction long after it is over. Men, on the other hand, may stay focused on the most immediately relevant issues and present key points more concisely and confidently, and then move on without looking back.

This perspective leads men to negotiate more often. However, there is always the risk of seeming overconfident or too competitive, if you do not keep the other party’s interests in mind. So your best bet is to take the time to self-reflect and think about how others may benefit from the individual skills you bring to the table, whether gender-related or not.

Myth 6: Employers want to give only the lowest offer

Negotiation is not the same as competition. Posting a job, reviewing applications, interviewing candidates, and putting offers together all take a while. By the time you receive a job offer, the employer is committed to you and wants you to succeed.

The goal of any negotiation, whether professional or personal, should be reaching a “zone of tolerance,” or an area where both of you feel a little comfort and a little discomfort.

Every job title is connected to a specified salary range, with professional skills and activities designated as suitable to the lower and higher ends of the range. Such activities may be a combination of content skills (technical skills specific to a particular job, such as performing PCR or working with mouse models) and transferable skills (those less obvious skills which may transfer into any job, such as facility at communication or ability to work on a team). Salaries are offered according to where the candidate’s experience falls within this continuum.

If a salary offer is not what you expected, first thank the hiring manager for the offer of a position and then inquire about the salary range, whether it is negotiable, and how they came to that figure. An offer closer to the high end of the range is more difficult to negotiate because it moves you closer to the next level in the pay structure. When negotiating (or even interviewing in the first place), however, remind your potential employer of the less obvious transferable skills you possess in addition to the hard technical skills in the job description. These are the skills that may get lost in translation on your CV or when determining an initial offer. As a candidate, you should focus on the whole package when considering a job offer, not just one aspect. In turn, it behooves you to clarify what went into the job offer in the first place to ensure that all of your skills, interests, and abilities are reflected.

Final advice for negotiating with your future colleagues
Yuki and Ray’s negotiation stories are not the worst I have heard. Several years ago another one of my students received an offer at a well-known organization. She negotiated a start date 3 months later than the employer requested, additional salary and moving expense coverage, vacation time soon after starting, and that one of her colleagues move, giving my student the corner office. She did receive the offer of her dreams, but managed to alienate all of her colleagues before even starting the job. She left after just a year and a half.

Remember that these are your future colleagues. You will see them again, possibly every day. You don’t want them to offer you the lowest salary possible, but don’t assume they are doing so. Likewise, don’t give them an excuse to make assumptions about you and your motives. Have your ideal offer in mind from the start, know your reservation price, and come into the process willing to negotiate the best possible agreement for everyone involved. Finally, ask for the offer in writing (not always possible, but highly advisable), and get a final written version once negotiation has been concluded.

Stephanie Eberle is the director of curriculum development at the Stanford University School of Medicine Career Center.

FIND OUT MORE

Resources used in this article and my most-often-recommended reference materials for those considering whether or not to negotiate and how to do so:

• Program on Negotiation, Harvard Law School (Harvard Negotiation Project):
  www.pon.harvard.edu

• Harvard Business Essentials: Negotiation, Harvard Business School Press, 2003

• Perfect Phrases for Negotiating Salary and Job Offers, Matthew J. DeLuca and Nanette
  F. DeLuca, McGraw-Hill, 2006

• Women Don’t Ask: The High Cost of Avoiding Negotiation—and Positive Strategies for Change, Linda Babcock and Sara Laschever, Bantam, 2007

• Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In, Roger Fisher, Bruce M.
  Patton, and William L. Ury, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2nd ed., 1992

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Decisions made by classroom instructors significantly affect the learning environment. Unlike previous models of assistance that separated students into prerequisite learning venues, progressive approaches embrace an inclusive classroom. Universal Instructional Design (Higbee, 2003) has emerged as a guiding theory for transforming the classroom for a diverse student body.

Folks:

The posting below looks at educational learning theories in the context of both student and instructor behavior.  It is from the chapter, Best Practices and Models in Learning Assistance, in the book, Access at the Crossroads: Learning Assistance in Higher Education, by David R. Arendale.  It is part of the ASHE Higher Education Report: Volume 35, Number 6, Kelly Ward, Lisa E. Wolf-Wendel, Series Editors. Copyright © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Company. All rights reserved.

Regards,

Rick Reis
reis@stanford.edu
UP NEXT: Let's Make a Deal-Six Myths About Job and Salary Negotiations

Appropriate and effective educational theory leads exemplary best practices to achieve the most positive outcomes for both the institutions and the student (Hamrick, Evans, and Schuh, 2002). Fresh approaches reflect rapidly changing needs of a diverse student population. Following is a sample of emerging educational theories guiding best practices in learning assistance approaches and programs (Higbee, Arendale, and Lundell, 2005). Some theories focus on changing students’ behaviors; others demand changes by the institution regarding curriculum delivery and the learning environment (Higbee, Arendale, and Lundell, 2005; Lundell and Higbee, 2001).

Theories that Guide Students’ Behaviors

The concept of “situated cognition” recognized that students learn most effectively when they are in a learning environment perceived as personally meaningful and structured so they can directly apply new cognitive skills and strategies (Wilson, 1993). Students acquire and incorporate learning and study strategies more effectively when they concurrently apply them in the context of rigorous core curriculum courses (Stahl, Simpson, and Hayes, 1992). This approach differs significantly from prerequisite models of learning assistance such as remedial courses, study skill workshops, and the like. Disconnected prerequisite approaches erect barriers for students to acquire strategies and improve academic performance. Many do not link the immediate application of these new skills with demands presented in core curriculum courses. Situated cognition immediately grounds new abstract ideas and skills in concrete use with a learning task and an educational outcome measure. Immediate application and positive feedback heighten likelihood of further use.

Differing from previous models of learning assistance, new educational theories guide students as they actively manage their learning experiences. Metacognitive processes empower students to self-monitor comprehension of the material and equip them to select appropriate learning strategies based on demands of the academic task (Weinstein, Goetz, and Alexander, 1988). Metacognitive approaches address different types of motivation influencing students (Pintrich, 2000). This theory partially explains the effectiveness of peer cooperative learning programs like the emerging scholars program and supplemental instruction that blend active engagement, self-reflection about learning, and acquisition of new cognitive learning skills.

Theories That Guide Instructors’ Behaviors

Decisions made by classroom instructors significantly affect the learning environment. Unlike previous models of assistance that separated students into prerequisite learning venues, progressive approaches embrace an inclusive classroom. Universal Instructional Design (Higbee, 2003) has emerged as a guiding theory for transforming the classroom for a diverse student body. UID was originally designed to mainstream students with disabilities into traditional classrooms by reducing barriers (Silver, Bourke, and Strehorn, 1998). As illustrated in the previous chapter by the introductory history courses at the University of Minnesota, UID guides integration of learning assistance activities and mastery of metacognitive learning strategies for all students enrolled in target core curriculum classes. This strategy builds on effective learning theory requiring immediate application to promote internalization and continued use by the student.

Astin (1984, 1985) promotes the “talent development” theory of student development. Too often students are stereotyped, especially those needing learning assistance, as being deficient. The purpose of education is to add what they lack. Instead, Astin encourages educators to understand students’ strengths and build on them rather than dwelling on what they temporarily lack. This shift from a deficit to a talent development model lifts stigma placed on students using learning assistance activities.

UID serves students identified as academically underprepared in one or more traditional core-curriculum classes. UID classes present rigorous academic content and require sophisticated skills (Higbee, 2003; Higbee, Lundell, and Arendale, 2005). Academically underprepared students can thrive through an enriched learning experience and embedded instruction of learning strategies. Rather than focusing on individual students and their perceived deficits, this educational model redirects the institution to improve the learning environment for all students. This systems approach avoids negative stigma pervious learning assistance approaches often endured—a stigma that also generated negative consequences for the programs and the struggling students.

Another important educational theory enhancing learning is multiculturalism. The classroom learning environment shifts from one that reflects the dominant campus culture to one focused on individual students. Previously multiculturalism celebrated contributions by individuals from historically underrepresented groups in society through history appreciation months or assigned readings. Leading-edge theorists advocate radical redesign of the classroom learning experience for all students. As UID reduces barriers for all students through careful redesign of class learning tasks and activities, multiculturalism requires similar effort (Higbee and Goff, 2008). Just as physical barriers in the classroom present challenges for some students, so too do learning pedagogies that do not respect different cultures and preferred ways of interacting in a classroom setting. The urgency of this theory’s application to learning assistance lies in the idea that it is a more effective way to serve a diverse student body. Culture extends beyond ethnicity through the expression of the multiple identities each person possesses. Some ways to implement instructional change guided by this theory include ensuring curricular materials reflect the diversity of the ethnicities, cultures, genders, and other identities of the students enrolled as well as the broader society; employing a variety of assessment activities such as objective exams, writing expressions, oral presentations, and the creation of Web sites to create opportunities for students to demonstrate mastery of course skills and knowledge; and providing various modes of learner interactions such as class lecturers, large-group discussions, small-group discussions, and Internet-based conversations. Multiculturalism reflects a respect for a wide variety of ways to learn, express, and demonstrate mastery of rigorous course material sensitive to preferences from students’ cultural backgrounds (Higbee, Lundell, and Duranczyk, 2003).

REFERENCES

Astin, A. W. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25, 297-308.

Astin, A. W. (1985). Achieving educational excellence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hamrick, F. A., Evans, J. J., and Schuh, J. H. (2002). Foundations of student affairs practice: How philosophy, theory, and research strengthen educational outcomes. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Higbee, J. L. (Ed.). (2003). Curriculum transformation and disability: Implementing universal design in higher education. Minneapolis: Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, General College, University of Minnesota.

Higbee, J. L., Arendale, D. R., and Lundell, D. B. (Eds.). (2005). Using theory and research to improve access and retention in developmental education. In C. A. Kozeracki (Ed.), Responding to the challenges of developmental education (pp. 5-15). New Directions for Community Colleges, no. 129. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Higbee, J. L., and Goff, E. (Eds.). (2008). Pedagogy and student services for institutional transformation: Implementing universal design in higher education. Minneapolis: Regents of the University of Minnesota, Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota.

Higbee, J. L., Lundell, D. B., and Duranczyk, I. M. (Eds.). (2003). Multiculturalism in developmental education. Annual Monograph Series No. 4. Minneapolis: Center for Research on Developmental Education, General College, University of Minnesota.

Lundell, D. B., and Higbee, J. L. (Eds.). (2001). Theoretical perspectives for developmental education. Annual Monograph Series No. 1. Minneapolis: Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, General College, University of Minnesota.

Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, and M. Zeldner (Eds.), Handbook on self-regulation (pp. 451-502). San Diego: Academic Press.

Silver, D., Bourke, A., and Strehorn, K. C. (1998). Universal instructional design in higher education: An approach for inclusion. Equity & Excellence in Education, 31(2), 47-51.

Stahl, N. A., Simposon, M. L., and Hayes, C. G. (1992). Ten recommendations from research for teaching high-risk college students. Journal of Developmental Education, 16(1), 2-4.

Weinstein, C., Goetz, E. T., and Alexander, P. A. (Eds.). (1988). Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment, instruction, and evaluation. San Diego: Academic Press.

Wilson, A. L. (1993). The promise of situated cognition. New Directions for Adults and Continuing Education, no. 57. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Answers to Common Questions About the Academic Portfolio